Creating Contestability and Fairness in Mobile Ecosystems: The Contribution of the DMA

Mobile ecosystems have become an inseparable part of the ever-growing digital economy, yet they remain remarkably controlled by two major operators. Over the past decade, Apple and Google have succeeded in shielding their duopoly against any competitive threat by keeping control over the key components of their mobile ecosystems. Although multiple aspects of Google and Apple’s ecosystems have been subject to competition law scrutiny, leading to record-breaking fines, their duopoly remained int